Reverse-Osmosis Deslination – addressing the water stress through renewable energy
Overview
Applications are invited from Northern Ireland, Great Britain and Republic of Ireland candidates only. International candidates should NOT apply for this PhD opportunity. The United Nations' sustainable development goal (SDG) no.6 aims to achieve the supply of clean and affordable drinking water for everyone by 2030 [1]. However, the present rate of climate change represents a significant threat to global water security. Almost two thirds of the global population lives under extreme water shortage for atleast a month per year, and almost half the population lives in moderate water scarcity throughout the year [1]. Desalination of seawater is a well accepted response to water scarcity and, as a result, is becoming increasingly important in the global supply of fresh water. Seawater desalination techniques are energy intensive and when performed at utility scale have significant environmental impacts from highly concentrated brine outlets. Conventional RO based desalination plants have a specific energy consumption (SEC) of 2-6 kWh/m3. Folley et al. [2] developed a numerical model for an autonomous wave-powered desalination system along with a pressure exchanger and found out that the SEC of a wave powered desalination plant is close to 2 kWh/m3 for a wide range of sea states. Yu & Jenne [3] developed a wave-to-water numerical model to analyze a reverse osmosis-based wave energy-powered desalination plant for different sea conditions. Suchithra et al.[4] designed a compact wave-powered desalination system suitable for disaster relief and performed a numerical analysis of it for different sea states. The results show that the specific energy consumption of the desalination plant is similar to that of a conventional plant. This has been demonstrated further by recent laboratory scale testing, demonstrating the potential of direct-drive desalination systems (DDS) [5]-[6]. The feed flow rate and feed pressure exert a significant influence on the operational efficacy of a reverse osmosis (RO) membrane system. Conventional desalination plants employing RO technology typically adhere to a constant flow rate and pressure regimen. Nevertheless, in scenarios where a renewable energy source directly drive an RO system, such as wave energy, fluctuations in both feed flow rate and feed pressure may arise in tandem with wave profile variations. The capacity of a DDS dictates the options for a energy recover device (ERD), the most suitable at small scale is a pressure exchanger such as the Clark Pump, which also faciliataes a ‘no-electricty-in-the-loop’ system, being purely mechanical in operation. The inclusion of a Clark pump facilitates a constant permeate recovery at user-defined levels (for instance, 10%), irrespective of fluctuations in flow rate or pressure. Moreover, the integration of an accumulator was observed to mitigate pressure surges generated by the Clark pump, thereby facilitating smooth system operation with no significant detriment to performance. Further work to investigate the lifecycle costs and maintenance periods of such a DDS is required and will be the subject of further work. The incorporation of the Clark pump markedly reduces the system's specific energy consumption (SEC), reducing it to below ~3.5 kWh/m3. Conversely, it imposes limitations on permeate recovery. However, for small-scale wave-powered desalination units, maintaining a low SEC rate assumes greater significance for the commercial feasibility of such systems. Nonetheless, achieving a harmonious equilibrium between permeate recovery and SEC is imperative for the successful commercialization of a wave-driven desalination system. It is crucial to gain a deeper understanding of the RO membrane's behaviour under varying flow and pressure conditions. Areas of further research in the development of directly-drive desalination from renewable energies. Research Direction: 1. Electricity generation from renewable energy technologies requires power performance assessment in order to characterise efficiencies and determine annual energy production (AEP). These performance metrics typically correlate the input resource potential to the output potential. In the application of direct-drive desalination whilst the input potential can be characterised in the same manner the output potential must be charcterisied in terms of the permate water quantity and quality (salt-content). This requires the development of a non-dimensional term appropriate for this type of characterisation and demonstration of its application to direct-drive desalination from renewable energy sources. 2. The significance of recent publications using the desalination test rig (DTR) in QUB has provided vital validation data sets for use in developing numerical simulations through WEC-Sim or similar codes. The development of a validated numerical simulation of the DTR (digital-twin) expand the scope of investigation capabilities into direc-drive desalination systems. Enabline the application of different renwable energy resource which generate mechanical power (such as wind, wave or tidal) and explore the opportunities for solar PV integration minimising inverter losses in producing the mechanical power. 3. Life-cycle assessment of a SWRO and Clark pump subject to variable feed flow and pressure. With the development of the test-rig and predictions from numerical simulations, improvement to the DTR will be undertaken for experimental study to investigate life-cycle assessment of critical component such as the membrane, clark pump (or other ERD) with respect to the direct-drive coupling source variability.
The United Nations' sustainable development goal (SDG) no.6 aims to achieve the supply of clean and affordable drinking water for everyone by 2030 [1]. However, the present rate of climate change represents a significant threat to global water security. Almost two thirds of the global population lives under extreme water shortage for at least a month per year, and almost half the population lives in moderate water scarcity throughout the year [1]. Desalination of seawater is a well accepted response to water scarcity and, as a result, is becoming increasingly important in the global supply of fresh water. Seawater desalination techniques are energy intensive and when performed at utility scale have significant environmental impacts from highly concentrated brine outlets.
Conventional RO based desalination plants have a specific energy consumption (SEC) of 2-6 kWh/m3.
Folley et al. [2] developed a numerical model for an autonomous wave-powered desalination system along with a pressure exchanger and found out that the SEC of a wave powered desalination plant is close to 2 kWh/m3 for a wide range of sea states. Yu & Jenne [3] developed a wave-to-water numerical model to analyze a reverse osmosis-based wave energy-powered desalination plant for different sea conditions. Suchithra et al.[4] designed a compact wave-powered desalination system suitable for disaster relief and performed a numerical analysis of it for different sea states. The results show that the specific energy consumption of the desalination plant is similar to that of a conventional plant. This has been demonstrated further by recent laboratory scale testing, demonstrating the potential of direct-drive desalination systems (DDS) [5]-[6].
REFERENCES
[1] United Nations, “Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development,” 2015.
[2] M. Folley, B. Peñate Suarez, and T. Whittaker, “An autonomous wave-powered desalination system,” Desalination, vol. 220, no. 1–3, pp. 412–421, Mar. 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.044.
[3] Yu Y-H, Jenne D. Numerical Modeling and Dynamic Analysis of a Wave-Powered Reverse-Osmosis System. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2018; 6(4):132. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse6040132
[4] R. Suchithra, Tapas K. Das, et.al. Numerical modelling and design of a small-scale wave-powered desalination system, Ocean Engineering, Volume 256, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.111419.
[5] T. K. Das, M. Folley, P. Lamont-Kane, and C. Frost, “Performance of a SWRO membrane under variable flow conditions arising from wave powered desalination,” Desalination, p. 117069, Oct. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DESAL.2023.117069
[6] T. K. Das, M. Folley, C. Frost, and P. Brewster, “Application of an energy recovery device with RO membrane for wave powered desalination,” Desalination, p. 118064, Aug. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.118064
ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND OF CANDIDATES
Minimum of a strong upper second class (2.1) honours degree (completed or in the final stages of completion) in a relevant engineering discipline with renewable energy or desalination experience.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Please note that applicants are not required to upload a research proposal as part of the application. Instead, interested candidates should upload a copy of their CV and a covering letter outlining their capacity to undertake a PhD on this theme, and describing any relevant experience in: renewable energies, chemical engineering and desalination technologies.
APPLICATION PROCEDURE – instructions for applicants
• To apply, visit https://go.qub.ac.uk/pgapply (link to the Queen's Application Portal)
• Apply for Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 'Civil Engineering' at Queen's University Belfast, School of Natural and Built Environment.
• State name of lead supervisor on application form 'Dr Carwyn Frost'.
• State the intended SOURCE OF FUNDING on your application as 'DfE’.
• Include your CV and a covering letter.
***Please ensure that all transcripts, together with award certificates (for completed qualifications) are uploaded by the closing date or it may not be possible to consider your application***
Funding Information
This studentship is funded by DfE. It is open to Northern Ireland, Great Britain and Republic of Ireland candidates only. International candidates should NOT apply for this PhD opportunity. The value of an award includes the cost of approved fees as well as maintenance support (stipend). As a guide, the stipend rate for 2025/2026 is currently £20,780.
Please note that this project is in competition for funding with several other projects within the School of Natural and Built Environment.
Civil Engineering overview
The research centre will address the topical grand challenges in the civil engineering field, building on existing and developing new international collaborations. Financial support to meet these challenges will be acquired through both internal University initiatives (for enhanced infrastructure and facilities) and external funding from government grants, charities and direct industrial support.
Research will address the grand challenges of energy, carbon, clean water, infrastructure; exploring extremes and defining new limits. Key research areas include:
Marine renewable energy
Groundwater and environmental systems
Geotechnics
Intelligent infrastructure and high-performance structures
Energy-efficient materials
Mode of study/duration
Registration is on a full-time or part-time basis, under the direction of a supervisory team appointed by the University. You will be expected to submit your thesis at the end of three years of full-time registration for PhD, or two years for MPhil (or part-time equivalent).
Civil Engineering Highlights
Global Opportunities
- The School of Natural and Built Environment brings together researchers from spatial planning, architecture, geography, paleoecology and civil engineering to tackle some of the world's most pressing urban and environmental challenges.
https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/NBE/Research/
Industry Links
- Civil Engineering is led by the Head of Discipline (Lead of Civil Engineering Dr Madjid Karimirad) supported by team leaders with responsibility for maintaining excellence in its research groups; - such as the Global Environmental Resilience group, the Intelligent and Sustainable Infrastructure group with several joint projects with international Centres of Excellence, as well as the Water and Energy Resources group, including Marine Research, with more than 40 years of research and development for numerical analysis, experimental laboratory and field testing. Further information about our research groups can be found on the School website.
https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/NBE/Disciplines/civil-and-structural-engineering/
World Class Facilities
- The School of Natural and Built Environment has a range of state-of-the-art facilities to support our outstanding students and staff conducting leading-edge research and teaching. These include a heavy structures laboratory, rheology laboratory, the Belfast Wave Flume and the Portaferry coastal wave basin.
https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/NBE/Research/facilities-infrastructure/
Student Experience
- Postgraduates form an intrinsic part of our research community and are actively involved in the School's cross-disciplinary Research Groups, enabling the creation of synergies in areas such as sustainability, infrastructure, water, energy, culture, design and heritage. The School is engaged with major research themes such as urbanism, community, heritage, population and climate change which contributes to the development of policy and practice both locally and globally. Visit our School website and read about the exciting research being undertaken by our current PhD students:
https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/NBE/Study/PostgraduateResearch/
Key Facts
QUB ranked 206 in the world (QS World University Ranking 2025)
- Civil Engineering is ranked 12th in the UK (Daily Mail University Guide 2025).
Course content
Research Information
Associated Research
The dynamic nature of this research has been key to our success in attracting significant funding from UK research councils, government departments and agencies.
The Civil Engineering Research Centre (CERC) is a leading international, interdisciplinary centre that enables scientists and engineers from all areas of civil engineering investigation to work on diverse, yet complementary research.
A special feature of the CERC is the extensive and diverse range of research topics being researched by students and staff in the Centre.
Career Prospects
Introduction
Many of our PhD graduates have moved into academic and research roles in Higher Education while others go on to play leading roles in educational practice, the public sector or within NGO’s. Queen's postgraduates reap exceptional benefits. Unique initiatives, such as Degree Plus and Researcher Plus bolster our commitment to employability.
For further information on career opportunities at PhD level please contact the Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences Student Recruitment Team on askEPS@qub.ac.uk.
Our advisors - in consultation with the School - will be happy to provide further information on your research area, possible career prospects and your research application.
People teaching you
Dr Carwyn Frost
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Daniel McPolin
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr David Hester
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Debra H Phillips
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Faris Elghaish
Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Giuseppina Amato
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Hector Martin
Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Jonathan Black
Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Madjid Karimirad
Reader
Natural and Built Environment
Lead of Civil Engineering
Dr Mohammed Sonebi
Professor
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Nipuni Odara Merenchi Galappaththige
Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Pal Schmitt
Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Raymond Flynn
Reader
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Rory Doherty
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Siobhan Cox
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Sree Nanukuttan
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Stephen McIlwaine
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Tara Brooks
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Ulrich Ofterdinger
Reader
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Vasileios Angelidakis
Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Dr Xianhai Meng
Senior Lecturer
Natural and Built Environment
Professor G Hamill
Professor
Natural and Built Environment
Head of School
Professor Marios Soutsos
Professor
Natural and Built Environment
Professor Su Taylor
Professor
Natural and Built Environment
Professor Wei Sha
Professor
Natural and Built Environment
Learning Outcomes
A research degree offers students an opportunity to foster their capacity for independent research and critical thought. It also allows students to explore an area of interest and so understand and solve theoretical and practical problems within the field.Undertaking a research degree also enhances a student’s written and oral communication skills, and a PhD is almost always a formal requirement for an academic post.
Course structure
You will carry out original research under the guidance of your supervisory team. There is no specific course content as such. This independent research is complemented by postgraduate skills training organised by Queen’s Graduate School, and other internal and external training courses organised through your supervisor.You will normally register, in the first instance, as an ‘undifferentiated PhD student’ which means that you have satisfied staff that you are capable of undertaking a research degree. The decision as to whether you should undertake an MPhil or a PhD is delayed until you have completed ‘differentiation’.
Differentiation takes place about 9-12 months after registration for full time students and about 18-30 months for part time students: You are normally asked to submit work to a panel of up two academics and this is followed up with a formal meeting with the ‘Differentiation Panel’. The Panel then make a judgement about your capacity to continue with your study. Sometimes students are advised to revise their research objectives or to consider submitting their work for an MPhil qualification rather than a doctoral qualification.
To complete with a doctoral qualification you will be required to submit a thesis of no more than 80,000 words and you will be required to attend a viva voce [oral examination] with an external and internal examiner to defend your thesis.
A PhD programme runs for 3-4 years full-time or 6-8 years part-time. Students can apply for a writing up year should it be required.
The PhD is open to both full and part time candidates and is often a useful preparation for a career within academia or consultancy.
Full time students are often attracted to research degree programmes because they offer an opportunity to pursue in some depth an area of academic interest.
The part time route is a suitable option for those unable to study for a PhD full time. This may be due to family commitments or those already in employment. On the former, studying part time for a PhD can be very accommodating in juggling different responsibilities. On the latter, part time candidates often choose to research an area that is related to their professional responsibilities.
If you meet the Entry Requirements, the next step is to check whether we can supervise research in your chosen area. We only take students to whom we can offer expert research supervision from one of our academic staff. Therefore, your research question needs to engage with the research interests of one of our staff.
Application Process
Please review the eligibility criteria on the webpages. If you believe that you meet these criteria then follow the steps below:
Select ONE potential supervisor from our list of Academic Staff (https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/NBE/OurPeople/AcademicandResearchStaff/) and send an email containing:
a brief CV (1-2 pages maximum)
a concise statement that you are interested in studying for a PhD, stating when you would start, and how you would plan to fund the research
a brief statement of the research question or interest, and how you think the question could be investigated
Our academic staff welcome approaches from prospective students; staff can liaise with applicants to develop a research proposal of mutual interest. The potential supervisor should get back to you within a couple of weeks. They may invite you to meet with them or they may invite you to apply formally.
If you have difficulty identifying or contacting an appropriate supervisor, please contact Catherine Boone (email: pgr.snbe@qub.ac.uk) who will be happy to help.
For part-time study – the closing date for this option is 31st August each year.
For full-time study (self-funding) – for those full time candidates who do not wish to compete for a studentship or who are not eligible to compete for a studentship the closing date is 31st August each year.
For full-time study and application for a studentship/award; please be aware that awards are only available to full time students. Candidates wishing to apply for studentships available within the School must apply for full-time study at the same time. Available studentships and closing dates are detailed on the School's studentships web page: https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/NBE/Study/PostgraduateResearch/ResearchStudentships/
Assessment
Assessment processes for the research degree differ from taught degrees. Students will be expected to present drafts of their work at regular intervals to their supervisor who will provide written and oral feedback; a formal assessment process takes place annually.
This Annual Progress Review requires students to present their work in writing and orally to a panel of academics from within the School. Successful completion of this process will allow students to register for the next academic year.
The final assessment of the doctoral degree is both oral and written. Students will submit their thesis to an internal and external examining team who will review the written thesis before inviting the student to orally defend their work at a Viva Voce.
Feedback
Supervisors will offer feedback on draft work at regular intervals throughout the period of registration on the degree.
Entrance requirements
Graduate
The minimum academic requirement for admission to a research degree programme is normally an Upper Second Class Honours degree from a UK or ROI HE provider, or an equivalent qualification acceptable to the University. Further information can be obtained by contacting the School.
International Students
For information on international qualification equivalents, please check the specific information for your country.
English Language Requirements
Evidence of an IELTS* score of 6.5, with not less than 5.5 in any component, or an equivalent qualification acceptable to the University is required. *Taken within the last 2 years.
International students wishing to apply to Queen's University Belfast (and for whom English is not their first language), must be able to demonstrate their proficiency in English in order to benefit fully from their course of study or research. Non-EEA nationals must also satisfy UK Visas and Immigration (UKVI) immigration requirements for English language for visa purposes.
For more information on English Language requirements for EEA and non-EEA nationals see: www.qub.ac.uk/EnglishLanguageReqs.
If you need to improve your English language skills before you enter this degree programme, INTO Queen's University Belfast offers a range of English language courses. These intensive and flexible courses are designed to improve your English ability for admission to this degree.
Tuition Fees
| Northern Ireland (NI) 1 | TBC |
| Republic of Ireland (ROI) 2 | TBC |
| England, Scotland or Wales (GB) 1 | TBC |
| EU Other 3 | £28,000 |
| International | £28,000 |
1 EU citizens in the EU Settlement Scheme, with settled or pre-settled status, are expected to be charged the NI or GB tuition fee based on where they are ordinarily resident, however this is provisional and subject to the publication of the Northern Ireland Assembly Student Fees Regulations. Students who are ROI nationals resident in GB are expected to be charged the GB fee, however this is provisional and subject to the publication of the Northern Ireland Assembly student fees Regulations.
2 It is expected that EU students who are ROI nationals resident in ROI will be eligible for NI tuition fees. The tuition fee set out above is provisional and subject to the publication of the Northern Ireland Assembly student fees Regulations.
3 EU Other students (excludes Republic of Ireland nationals living in GB, NI or ROI) are charged tuition fees in line with international fees.
All tuition fees quoted relate to a single year of study unless stated otherwise. All fees will be subject to an annual inflationary increase, unless explicitly stated otherwise.
More information on postgraduate tuition fees.
Civil Engineering costs
There are no specific additional course costs associated with this programme.
Additional course costs
All Students
Depending on the programme of study, there may also be other extra costs which are not covered by tuition fees, which students will need to consider when planning their studies . Students can borrow books and access online learning resources from any Queen's library. If students wish to purchase recommended texts, rather than borrow them from the University Library, prices per text can range from £30 to £100. Students should also budget between £30 to £100 per year for photocopying, memory sticks and printing charges. Students may wish to consider purchasing an electronic device; costs will vary depending on the specification of the model chosen. There are also additional charges for graduation ceremonies, and library fines. In undertaking a research project students may incur costs associated with transport and/or materials, and there will also be additional costs for printing and binding the thesis. There may also be individually tailored research project expenses and students should consult directly with the School for further information.
Bench fees
Some research programmes incur an additional annual charge on top of the tuition fees, often referred to as a bench fee. Bench fees are charged when a programme (or a specific project) incurs extra costs such as those involved with specialist laboratory or field work. If you are required to pay bench fees they will be detailed on your offer letter. If you have any questions about Bench Fees these should be raised with your School at the application stage. Please note that, if you are being funded you will need to ensure your sponsor is aware of and has agreed to fund these additional costs before accepting your place.
How do I fund my study?
1.PhD OpportunitiesFind PhD opportunities and funded studentships by subject area.
2.Funded Doctoral Training ProgrammesWe offer numerous opportunities for funded doctoral study in a world-class research environment. Our centres and partnerships, aim to seek out and nurture outstanding postgraduate research students, and provide targeted training and skills development.
3.PhD loansThe Government offers doctoral loans of up to £26,445 for PhDs and equivalent postgraduate research programmes for English- or Welsh-resident UK and EU students.
4.International ScholarshipsInformation on Postgraduate Research scholarships for international students.
Funding and Scholarships
The Funding & Scholarship Finder helps prospective and current students find funding to help cover costs towards a whole range of study related expenses.
How to Apply
Apply using our online Postgraduate Applications Portal and follow the step-by-step instructions on how to apply.
Find a supervisor
If you're interested in a particular project, we suggest you contact the relevant academic before you apply, to introduce yourself and ask questions.
To find a potential supervisor aligned with your area of interest, or if you are unsure of who to contact, look through the staff profiles linked here.
You might be asked to provide a short outline of your proposal to help us identify potential supervisors.